Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) was a renowned Arab historian, philosopher, and sociologist from North Africa, widely regarded as one of the founders of sociology and historiography. Born in Tunis, he spent much of his life in the Maghreb (Northwest Africa), Andalusia (modern-day Spain), and Egypt, where he held various political and administrative roles and served as a judge.
His education in Tunis was best in class for his time, encompassing not only Quran, Arabic grammar, and Islamic sciences but also mathematics, logic, and philosophy, focusing on Greek philosophers like Aristotle and Islamic thinkers such as Avicenna and Averroes, which broadened his critical thinking. Additionally, he trained in poetry and rhetoric, essential skills for a scholar of his time, and learned under prominent teachers like Al-Abili, who introduced him to advanced philosophical and mathematical concepts.
This unique combination of scholarly training and political involvement gave him the tools to develop groundbreaking theories in his most famous work, The Muqaddimah (Introduction), where he explored the dynamics of society, history, and civilization, documenting his insights into the nature of human society.
The Muqaddimah, also known as The Introduction or Prolegomena, is a comprehensive work on the philosophy of history and sociology. Written in 1377 as an introduction to his universal history, Kitab al-‘Ibar, the book examines the fundamental principles that govern societies and civilizations. Ibn Khaldun sought to understand the patterns of rise and fall among empires, explaining these phenomena through an analysis of human behavior, dynasties, economics, political institutions, and social cohesion.
Ibn Khaldun’s insights were revolutionary for his time. He emphasized a scientific approach to history, considering not only events but the underlying causes and effects that drive historical processes. While some of his insights have stood the test of time, others have not.
Despite having access to the finest education and resources available for his time, Ibn Khaldun—one of the brightest minds in history—held scientific views that, while groundbreaking then, are now recognized as flawed. This isn’t to suggest that we are inherently wiser than he was. In fact, our own scientific theories today may well be subject to the same scrutiny and revision by future generations. Instead, it highlights that even 700 years after the revelation of the Quran, the understanding of the natural world for the Arabs remained inaccurate.
What is remarkable, however, is that the Quran contains scientific insights that have withstood the test of time, remaining accurate across centuries, even as our understanding evolves. If the Quran were simply the work of a 7th-century Bedouin with no formal education, how is it that these scientific details that were included in the Quran remain true? How is it that any of these blatantly erroneous understandings of the time were not included in the verses of the Quran? Additionally, even some of the claims made in the Quran that were previously criticized or disputed have later been found to be scientifically valid. This not only shows that the text of the Quran did not bend to the understanding of its time but that the Quran is not a product of its era or region but a revelation from a source beyond the limitations of time and geography—from God, the Lord of the Universe.
Below are some of the excerpts from the Muqaddimah; Ibn Khaldun. (2015). The Muqaddimah: An introduction to history (B. B. Lawrence, Ed.; F. Rosenthal, Trans., Abridged ed.). Princeton University Press.
Sun is not hot: Pages 143-144
One of the strangest of these stories is about Og, the son of Anak, one of the Canaanites against whom the children of Israel fought in Syria. According to these storytellers, he was so tall that he took fish out of the ocean and held them up to the sun to be cooked. To their ignorance of human affairs, the storytellers here add ignorance of astronomical matters. They believe that the sun is heat and that the heat of the sun is greatest close to it. They do not know that the heat of the sun is its light and that its light is stronger near the earth (than it is near the sun) because of the reflection of the rays from the surface of the earth when it is hit by the light. Therefore, the heat here is many times greater (than near the sun). When the zone in which the reflected rays are effective is passed, there will be no heat there, and it will be cold. (That is) where the clouds are. The sun itself is neither hot nor cold, but a simple uncomposed substance that gives light.
The Story of Alexander: Page 36
Students often happen to accept and transmit absurd information that, in turn, is believed on their authority. Al-Mas’udi, for instance, reports such a story about Alexander. Sea monsters prevented Alexander from building Alexandria. He took a wooden container in which a glass box was inserted, and dived in it to the bottom of the sea. There he drew pictures of the devilish monsters he saw. He then had metal effigies of these animals made and set them up opposite the place where building was going on. When the monsters came out and saw the effigies, they fled. Alexander was thus able to complete the building of Alexandria.
It is a long story, made up of nonsensical elements which are absurd for various reasons. Thus, (Alexander is said) to have taken a glass box and braved the sea and its waves in person. Now, rulers would not take such a risk. Any ruler who would attempt such a thing would work his own undoing and provoke the outbreak of revolt against himself, and be replaced by the people with someone else. That would be his end. People would not wait one moment for him to return from the risk he is taking.
Furthermore, the jinn are not known to have specific forms and effigies. They are able to take on various forms. The story of the many heads they have is intended to indicate ugliness and frightfulness. It is not meant to be taken literally.
All this throws suspicion upon the story. Yet, the element in it that makes the story absurd for reasons based on the facts of existence is more convincing than all the other arguments. Were one to go down deep into the water, even in a box, one would have too little air for natural breathing. Because of that, one’s spirit¹ would quickly become hot. Such a man would lack the cold air necessary to maintain a well-balanced humour of the lung and the vital spirit. He would perish on the spot. This is the reason why people perish in hot baths when cold air is denied to them. It also is the reason why people who go down into deep wells and dungeons perish when the air there becomes hot through putrefaction, and no winds enter those places to stir the air up. Those who go down there die immediately. This also is why fish die when they leave the water, for the air is not sufficient for a fish to balance its lung. The fish is extremely hot, and the water to balance its humour is cold. The air into which the fish now comes is hot. Heat, thus, gains power over its animal spirit, and it perishes at once. This also is the reason for sudden death, and similar things.
Shape of the Earth and Climate: p.49-50
In the books of philosophers who speculated about the condition of the world, it has been explained that the earth has a spherical shape and is enveloped by the element of water. It may be compared to a grape floating upon water.
The part of the earth that is free from water (and thus suitable) for human civilization has more waste and empty areas than (habitable) areas. The empty area in the south is larger than that in the north. The cultivated part of the earth extends more toward the north. In the shape of a circular plane it extends in the south to the equator and in the north to a circular line, behind which there are mountains separating (the cultivated part) from the elemental water.
The part of the earth that is free from water is said to cover one-half or less of the sphere. The cultivated part covers one-fourth of it. It is divided into seven zones.
The equator divides the earth into two halves from west to east. It represents the length of the earth. It is the longest line on the sphere of the earth, just as the ecliptic and the equinoctial lines are the longest on the firmament. The ecliptic is divided into 360 degrees.
The cultivated area north of the equator is only sixty-four degrees. The rest is empty and uncultivated because of the bitter cold and frost, exactly as the southern part is altogether empty because of the heat.
Proverb: Page 25
[T]he customs of each race depend on the customs of its ruler. As the proverb says: ‘The common people follow the religion of the ruler.‘
One dynasty that isn’t able to tear down the structure of another dynasty p. 143
Think of the works of the people of ‘Ad and Thamud, about which the Qur’an tells. Or, one should see with one’s own eyes the Reception Hall of Khosraw, that powerful achievement of Persian (architecture). Ar-Rashid intended to tear it down and destroy it. He could not do so for all his trouble. He began the work, but then was not able to continue. It is worth noting that one dynasty was able to construct a building that another dynasty was unable to tear down, even though destruction is much easier than construction. That illustrates the great difference between the two dynasties.
Other Absurd Stories from Al-Mas’udi: Page 36
Below are some other narratives that another top historian, Al-Mas’udi, narrated that Ibn Khaldun called absurd.
Al-Mas’udi reports another absurd story, that of the Statue of the Starling in Rome. On a fixed day of the year, starlings gather at that statue bringing olives from which the inhabitants of Rome get their oil. How little this has to do with the natural principle of getting oil.
Another absurd story is reported by al-Bakri. It concerns the way the so-called ‘Gate City’ was built. That city had a circumference of more than a thirty days’ journey and had ten thousand gates. Now, cities are used for security and protection. Such a city, however, could not be controlled and would offer no security or protec-
Then, there is also al-Mas’udi’s story of the ‘Copper City’. This is said to be a city built wholly of copper in the desert of Sijilmasah which Musa b. Nusayr² crossed on his raid against the Maghrib. The gates of this city are said to be closed. When the person who climbs its walls, in order to enter it, reaches the top, he claps his hands and throws himself down and never returns. All this is an absurd story. It belongs to the idle talk of storytellers. The desert of Sijilmasah has been crossed by travellers and guides. They have not come across any information about such a city. All the details mentioned about it are absurd. They contradict the natural facts that apply to the building and planning of cities. Metal exists at best in quantities sufficient for utensils and furnishings. It is clearly absurd and unlikely that there would be enough to cover a city with it.
Umar Destroyed the Science of the Persians upon Conquest: p. 39
Where are the sciences of the Persians that ‘Umar ordered to be wiped out at the time of the conquest?
Con’t p. 373
The intellectual sciences are said to have come to the Greeks from the Persians, when Alexander killed Darius and gained control of the Achaemenid empire. At that time, he appropriated the books and sciences of the Persians. However, when the Muslims conquered Persia and came upon an indescribably large number of books and scientific papers, Sa’d b. Abi Waqqas wrote to ‘Umar b. al-Khattab, asking him for permission to take them and distribute them as booty among the Muslims. On that occasion, ‘Umar wrote him: “Throw them into the water. If what they contain is right guidance, God has given us better guidance. If it is error, God has protected us against it.” Thus, the (Muslims) threw them into the water or into the fire, and the sciences of the Persians were lost and did not reach us.
Chapter 1: Human civilization in general; First Prefactory Discussion p.45-46 (see also 336)
Human social organization is something necessary. The philosophers expressed this fact by saying: ‘Man is “political” by nature.’ That is, he cannot do without the social organization for which the philosophers use the technical term ‘town’ (polis).
…
It is beyond the power of one man alone to do all that, or part of it, by himself. Thus, he cannot do without a combination of many powers from among his fellow beings, if he is to obtain food for himself and for them. Through co-operation, the needs of a number of persons, many times greater than their own number, can be satisfied.
Likewise, each individual needs the help of his fellow beings for his defence. When God fashioned the natures of all living beings and divided the various powers among them, many dumb animals were given more perfect powers than God gave to man.
…
The power of one individual human being cannot withstand the power of any one dumb animal, especially the power of the predatory animals. Man is generally unable to defend himself against them by himself. Nor is his unaided power sufficient to make use of the existing instruments of defence, because there are so many of them and they require so many crafts and things. It is absolutely necessary for man to have the co-operation of his fellow men. As long as there is no such co-operation, he cannot obtain any food or nourishment, and life cannot materialize for him, because God fashioned him so that he must have food if he is to live. Nor, lacking weapons, can he defend himself. Thus, he falls prey to animals and dies much before his time. Under such circumstances, the human species would vanish. When, however, mutual co-operation exists, man obtains food for his nourishment and weapons for his defence. God’s wise plan that mankind should subsist and the human species be preserved will be fulfilled.
Racism mixed with Bad Science p. 63-64
I don’t want to reproduce this section due to its offensive nature, but in short, this section discusses the predisposition of Africans. To his credit, Ibn Khaldun refutes the following claim from Al-Mas’udi, who reported on the authority of Galen and Ya’qub b. Ishaq al-Kindi that the reason is “a weakness in their brains, which results in the weakness of their intellect.” To which Ibn Khaldun states, “This is an inconclusive and unproven statement.” Yet, he equates the disposition of Africans to the heat of the area in which they live.
Abundance of Food and Disease: P. 65
In the Fifth Prefactory Discussion: Differences with regard to abundance and scarcity of food in the various inhabited regions and how they affect the human body and character, Ibn Khaldun makes an argument that excess food makes a person unhealthy and weak, stating that “The result is stupidity, carelessness, and a general intemperance.” He argues that the Bedouins fare better in health and intellect due to their lower consumption of food and spices. He states:
It should be known that everybody who is able to suffer hunger or eat only little, is physically better off if he stays hungry than if he eats too much. Hunger has a favourable influence on the health and well-being of the body and intellect, as we have stated. This may be exemplified by the different influence of various kinds of food upon the body. We observe that those persons who live on the meat of strong, large-bodied animals grow up as a (strong and large-bodied) race. Comparison of the inhabitants of the desert with those of settled areas shows this. The same applies to persons who live on the milk and meat of camels. This influences their character, so that they become patient, persevering, and able to carry loads, as is the case with camels. Their stomachs also grow to be healthy and tough as the stomachs of camels. They are not beset by any feebleness or weakness, nor are they affected by unwholesome food, as others are. They may take strong (alkaloid) cathartics unadulterated to purify their bellies, such as, for instance, unripe colocynths, the deadly carrot, and Euphorbia. Their stomachs do not suffer any harm from them. But if the inhabitants of settled areas, whose stomachs have become delicate because of their soft diet, were to partake of them, death would come to them instantly, because these cathartics have poisonous qualities.
Food and Digestion Cause of All Disease: p 324-326
It should be known that the origin of all illnesses is in food, as Muhammad said in the comprehensive tradition on medicine, that is reported among physicians but suspected by the religious scholars.
He said: “The stomach is the home of disease. Dieting is the main medicine. The origin of every disease is indigestion.” The statement: “The stomach is the home of disease,” is obvious. The statement: “Dieting is the main medicine,” is to be understood in the sense that ‘dieting’ means ‘going hungry,’ since hunger means abstinence from food. Thus, the meaning is that hunger is the greatest medicine, the origin of all medicines. The statement: “The origin of every disease is indigestion,” is to be understood in the sense that ‘indigestion’ is the addition of new food to the food already in the stomach before it has been digested.
The food then gets into the stomach, and the heat of the stomach boils it, until it becomes chyme, that is, the essence of the boiled (food). (The stomach) sends (the chyme) on into the liver, and ejects the part of the food that has become solid sediment in the bowels, through the two body openings. The heat of the liver then boils the chyme, until it becomes fresh blood. On it, there swims a kind of foam as the result of the boiling. (That foam) is yellow bile. Parts of it become dry and solid. They are black bile. The natural heat is not quite sufficient to boil the coarse parts. They are phlegm. The liver then sends all (these substances) into the veins and arteries. There, the natural heat starts to boil them. The pure blood thus generates a hot and humid vapour that sustains the animal spirit. The growing power acts upon the blood, and it becomes flesh. The thick part of it then becomes bones. Then, the body eliminates the (elements of the digested food) it does not need as the various superfluities, such as sweat, saliva, mucus, and tears. This is the process of nourishment, and the transformation of food from potential into actual flesh.
Now, illnesses originate from fevers, and most illnesses are fevers. The reason for fevers is that the natural heat is too weak to complete the process of boiling in each of those stages. The nourishment thus is not fully assimilated. The incidence of such illnesses is most frequent among the inhabitants of sedentary areas and cities, because they live a life of plenty. They eat a great deal and rarely restrict themselves to one particular kind of food. They lack caution in taking food, and they prepare their food, when they cook it, with an admixture of a good many things, such as spices, herbs, and fruits, both fresh and dry. They do not restrict themselves in this respect to one or even a few kinds. We have on occasion counted forty different kinds of vegetables and meats in a single cooked dish. This gives the nourishment a strange temper and often does not agree with the body and its parts.
Furthermore, the air in cities becomes corrupt through admixture of putrid vapours because of the great number of superfluities. It is the air that gives energy to the spirit and thus strengthens the influence of the natural heat upon digestion.
Furthermore, the inhabitants of cities lack exercise. As a rule, they rest and remain quiet. Thus, the incidence of illness is great in towns and cities, and the inhabitants’ need for medicine is correspondingly great.
On the other hand, the inhabitants of the desert, as a rule, eat little. Hunger prevails among them, because they have little grain. It eventually becomes a custom of theirs which is often thought to be something natural to them because it is so lasting. Of seasonings they have few or none. Thus, they take their nourishment plain and without admixtures, and its temper comes close to being agreeable to the body. The air they breathe has little putrescence. They take exercise, and there is a lot of movement when they race horses, or go hunting, or search for things they need. For all these reasons, their digestion is very good. Thus, their temper is healthier and more remote from illness. As a result, their need for medicine is small. Therefore, physicians are nowhere to be found in the desert. The only reason for this is the lack of need for them, because if physicians were needed in the desert they would be there. There would then be a livelihood for them to lead them to settle there.
Proverb: p. 337
This is the meaning of the famous saying: ‘He who is not educated by his parents will be educated by time.’
Egyptians Taught Animals to Speak: p. 342
We hear that the Egyptians have achieved things hardly possible in the teaching of the crafts. For instance, they teach domestic donkeys and other dumb animals, quadrapeds, and birds, to speak words and to do things that are remarkable for their rarity and that the inhabitants of the Maghrib would not be capable of understanding, let alone teaching.
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